CONTENTS
Page
Authorship declaration 2
Abstract 3
List of Tables 4
List of Figures 5
Acknowledgements 6
1. Introduction 7
1.1 Background 11
1.2 Research objectives 15
1.3 Research questions 16
2. Literature Review 17
2.1 Subtopic 18
2.2 Subtopic 24
2.3 Subtopic 28
3. Methodology 30
3.1 Justification of approach 30
3.2 Research strategy 32
3.3 Data analysis 34
4. Results 37
4.1 Subtopic 38
4.2 Subtopic 40
5. Conclusion 42
5.1 Evaluation of achievement 46
5.2 Directions for future work 49
Appendix 1 50
Appendix 2 53
Appendix 3 57
References 65
Table 2: Specimen table of contents
(Note; an actual contents page does not have a border and may extend over more than one page)
Introduction/background
This section introduces the reader to the subject area of the project. It may include such things as how the need for the research was identified, the nature of the application area, the relationship with any partners.
Where the project is interdisciplinary, this section should provide an introduction to contributing domains. Some evidence of reading around the subject area will be expected for all dissertations. The quality of the literature review and how knowledge gained from it fed into the work done are criteria examiners will be especially aware of in distinguishing average dissertations from first class ones.
Discussion
Whatever the organisation of the main body of the document, it is usual to have a rounding-off section of discussion, summary or perhaps evaluation of achievement.
This section can be used in different ways depending on the nature of the project. It may be used to draw together major themes into a summary and conclusion. It can be used to demonstrate that the objectives of the project have been met.
Another use is to highlight important findings and to suggest how these findings may have relevance in related fields. The discussion section will mention difficulties encountered too, perhaps limitations of tools and techniques used – also things that with hindsight you would have tackled differently. If appropriate, the final section should mention possibilities for future work based on the project.
Examiners will be looking not only for a high standard of research, but also for a well developed critical sense demonstrated through self-evaluation of the work completed.
Appendices
Appendices should be used for reference material, such as information which would be too bulky, or would detract from the flow of the text, if included in the body of the document. A good rule of thumb is to include reference material that will be consulted from many different sections in the document in Appendix. Otherwise, put the information into a figure or table and keep it close to the text that refers to it.
References
There should always be a list of all books, articles and other sources consulted. With the exception of things like dictionaries or programming language texts, which may not merit a citation in your document, the use of all other source materials should be explicit in the dissertation. This means that normally every item in the reference list will be referred to in the dissertation and every item mentioned in the dissertation will have an entry in the reference list.
3.0 Document format
The information in this section explains how the dissertation should look. It is far easier to absorb these standards, set them up on a word-processor and use them throughout the preparation of a document than to attempt a major rearrangement of material to conform to them at the last minute. All PMP dissertations must adhere to the standards set out below.
Length
The upper limit for the PMP dissertation is 5000 words excluding appendices and references. Remember, quantity is no substitute for quality.
Paper
The entire document must be submitted on A4 size paper. The weight of the paper should be between 70 g/m and 100 g/m. In practice, aim for a quality a little above the minimum so that the paper is less likely to tear during the binding.
Printing
The document should be printed on one side of each page only. The print quality should be dark and clear.
Margins
Left margin 3 cm, right margin 2.5 cm, top and bottom margins 2.5 cm.
Justification
Left margin should be justified.
Language
Language should be set as English (UK).
Font size
Use a Times Roman or similar style font, point size 12 for most of the document. Print quality must be good.
Pagination
The report must carry sequential pagination throughout, including appendices. Use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 etc). The page number should be at the bottom right margin of each page. The title page is counted in the numbering, but bears no page number.
Page breaks
Try to ensure that page breaks occur in sensible places. Take a new page for each main section (you may call them chapters if you wish). There is no need to take a new page for sub-section headings, but make sure that at least a couple of lines of text
follow a heading, otherwise insert a page break before the heading. Never let a page break separate the last line of a paragraph. Try to ensure that, if possible, enumerated lists are not split across pages.
Header
In addition to the page number, the document header should include the candidate’s name, qualification sought and calendar year. e.g. Jackie Chan, Pre-masters Programme, 2007.
Paragraphs
These should be blocked (no indentation on the first line) and separated by a single blank line.
Line spacing
The text of the document should be 1.5 spaced.
Headings and legends
Section and subsection headings should be bolded. Major headings should be printed in point size 14. Legends (these are the figure and table identifications) should be bolded and centred, but not enlarged. Other explanatory text should be in point size 10.
Sectioning
Sections and subsections are used to organise the document into cohesive chunks for the reader. Give them meaningful headings. Never subdivide beyond three levels, (e.g. 3.1.1.2 is too much). If the contents page shows repeated page numbers (several subsections beginning on the same page), this is a sure sign that the document is too bitty and that your subsections are too short. In this case, collapse them into a larger unit. Note that there is a point between subsection numbers, but not after the last. So 3.1.2 is right and 3.1.2. is wrong.
Citations
Where it is desired to quote a sizable chunk (around 30 words or more) from the work of another author, the quotation should be blocked and indented 1.27 cm from the left and right margin, it should also be separated from the preceding and following text by blank lines. There is no need to use quotation marks.
If this was an extract from a publication about report-writing that I wanted
to include, it would be set off in this way to distinguish it from my own
words. When quoting direct from a source, it is essential to provide a full
reference, including page number, so that readers can locate the passage if
they so desire. (Bloggs 1993, 9)
Bloggs (1993) would appear in the references. If the quotation spans more than one published page, the form is (Bloggs 1993, 9-10). If the quotation omits some material between the source’s start and end points, this is indicated by three dots as follows:
If this were an extract from a book … it would be set off in this way to distinguish it from my own words. When quoting … provide a full
reference, including page number, so that readers can locate the passage if they so desire. (Bloggs 1993, p. 9)
When quoting smaller amounts, the quotation can be incorporated into the text, without the need to offset it. (See Harvard Reference Guide for complete referencing information)
Care in acknowledging the work of others is of paramount importance in all areas of life, but especially in academic work, where the currency is not physical objects, but ideas. Use of the work of others without attribution is tantamount to stealing.
In presenting work for examination it is necessary to be diligent in this respect for three main reasons: firstly to furnish evidence of literature read, secondly to establish the body of work from which your work arises and thirdly to be able to demonstrate the aspects of your work that are novel and for which you should properly take credit.
Tables and figures
These should each be sequentially (and separately) numbered throughout the document. They should be centred and labelled with identification number and title.
If a graphical representation is used, axes must be clearly labelled. It is common to include a line or two under the table identifier to clarify the contents. If necessary to fit the contents of a table on page, 10 point font size may be used, alternatively the page may be printed in landscape mode. Make sure that the exact working of the legends (table or figure titles) appears in the list of figures and tables.
Note that when you refer to a particular figure of table in the dissertation, the initial letter of the word ‘figure’ or ‘table’ should always be capitalised. Figure 2 illustrates these points.
Appendices
These should be sequentially numbered starting with Appendix 1. Sequential pagination continues from the main body of the document through the appendices.
References
If there is a lengthy list (several pages), use 10 point font size, otherwise use 12 point. References must be given in the Harvard style.As a general rule, do not base your references too heavily on sources for which there is not hard copy equivalent.
4.0 Stylistic and grammatical advice
Apostrophes
One of the commonest mistakes in students’ writing is incorrect use of the apostrophe. It is used in English to form contractions such as didn’t (did not), can’t (cannot) and it’s (it is). These uses should be avoided in academic writing and the words written out in full. Note especially that the possessive form of the pronoun it is its, not it’s.
Grammar
Be careful to write in fully formed sentences, and to proofread the document to ensure, not only that the text is grammatically sound, but also that it means exactly what was intended. Consider closely items identified by grammar checkers.
Spelling
There should be no excuse for spelling mistakes in a word-processed document. Always use a spelling checker, but note that the spelling checkers cannot detect cases where the wrong word happens to be a real word. There is no escaping the necessity for proofreading.
Developing an argument
One of the main difficulties seen in students’ writing is the inability to develop an argument. Developing an argument means writing a set of paragraphs which are logically ordered and which progress a line of reasoning or a line of enquiry. Too often students have this argument in their heads, but write in disconnected fragments, expecting the reader to fill in the holes.
Academic writing is not like Fiction, where understatement can be an effective device. It is more like Law, where a case must be seen to be proven, step by step. Often, all that is missing are the appropriate links between sentences and paragraphs to show how they fit together.
This idea of cohesion is as important in presenting a literature review as in presenting new ideas. A common mistake is to survey related work, but to provide no critical commentary on the findings. So the reader is left with an undigested catalogue of citations with no guidance as to what this all amounts to, or how it has given rise to the project topic.
A good way to learn about critically reviewing literature is to read academic journal papers. A major journal paper will always refer to relevant literature, pointing out how the work in hand extends previous published findings, utilises previous work in novel ways, or perhaps contradicts previous findings.
4.0 Organisational hints
Use of tools
The key to success is good organisation. Modern computing facilities make the production of professional quality documentation easier than ever before. The secret is to appreciate that a word processor is not just a glorified typewriter. Many students make the mistake of sitting down at the end of a project’s life cycle to the arduous task of typing up the dissertation. A much better way is to set up the framework for the document early on.
It is advisable to create a separate file for each major section for the following reasons:
a. So that backing up is easier
b. If disaster strikes losses will be contained
c. It can be easier to use multi-windowing (having more than one part of the document visible simultaneously)
If the framework of a document is in place early, notes can be made in the sections yet to be written as ideas occur. Likewise, notes should always be made of early reading. Inevitably, something read early on and discarded will turn out to be crucial later – large amounts of wasted time are then expended trying to recall where the item was seen and searching for it.
A good plan, which will save time in the long run, is to create a bibliography file or use one of the commercially available bibliographic database building programs, such as Procite or Endnotes. Consult your university library to see if one of these programs is available free of charge to students.
The principle of minimising work and typing is important. For example, when creating a new figure or table, paste the legend straight into the list of figures or list of tables as you create it in the main document. Likewise, every time an author is cited, check the references and enter the details if they do not already exist. If you are using a database building program, enter all the details when you first read a paper. When you are ready to print out your reference list, you can delete the citations not used.
Finally, a word processing program allows the author to refine and re-organise text very easily. A first draft should be regarded as a rough approximation, to be honed into shape. By writing throughout the project’s development and not in one mighty rush at the end, there is plenty of time to reflect on the shape of the document and to return to earlier parts with a fresh eye.
Appendix 1: Avoiding sexism in academic writing
Unfortunately, English has no neuter pronoun that can be used to refer to a singular person whose gender is unknown. In the past the convention has been to use ‘he’ in these cases (in the same way that ‘man’ has been used to refer to people in general).
Increasing awareness of the potentially damaging effects of this masculine bias in the language has led to efforts to eradicate inappropriate use of masculine (and feminine) pronouns and to introduce non-sexist versions of offending words, - chairman becomes chairperson or chair. Writers often used to add a footnote to the effect that ‘he’ is used to mean ‘he or she’ and that no prejudice is intended. However, universities 留学生论文and publishing houses no longer accept this sort of disclaimer and will not tolerate what is seen as sexist writing. Note that using ‘she’ throughout instead of ‘he’ is equally discriminatory and therefore no better than using ‘he’.
It is generally possible to ‘neutralise’ any sentence without the text becoming contorted or stilted.
1. When referring to an individual whose gender is known, use ‘he/his’ or ‘she/her’ as appropriate.
2. When referring to an individual whose gender is unknown avoid committing to ‘he’ or ‘she’. This can be done by re-phrasing, or by pluralising.
Examples of re-phrasing
X Once a manager is satisfied that procedures have been carried out, he may ….
Once satisfied that procedures have been carried out, a manager may ….
X If he thinks it necessary, the instructor should repeat the questions at the
beginning of the next class.
If it seems necessary, the instructor should repeat the questions at the beginning of
the next class.
Examples of pluralizing
X The user should start by booting his computer.
Users should start by booting their computers.
X Once a student has completed the prerequisites, he should be able to apply for
graduate studies.
Once students have completed the prerequisites, they should be able to apply for
graduate studies.
Appendix 2: Writing a good abstract
Too often, the abstract is dashed off at the last minute, without fully appreciating how important this short summary is in conveying an impression of achievement to examiners. In academic life the abstract plays an important role.
The first stage in submitting a paper to a conference is often to submit an abstract of the work, the abstracts are refereed and on the basis of this ‘selection by abstract’, some of the authors are invited to produce a full paper. Every published academic paper is preceded by an abstract; readers decide which papers to study in detail by skimming the abstract. Likewise, when using databases for literature searching, one has to decide on the basis of the abstract whether the paper is important to read or not.
In business, too, the technique of writing succinct summaries is a valuable skill. Producing briefings, summarising recommendations, making a business case and formulating procedures are all activities where a small quantity of crisp, clear writing is advantageous.
For the purposes of a research paper, the abstract should contain a clear statement of what the research is about, what the scope of the project is, what has been achieved, and what the most important findings of the work are.
After reading the abstract, an examiner should be in no doubt:
• That the general objectives of the research have been met
• About the scope, difficulties and distinguishing characteristics of the particular research project.
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